科学と研究

conjecture (an opinion or conclusion formed without firm proof)

An unproven proposition put forward on the basis of incomplete evidence, especially in mathematics or theoretical science.

axiom (a statement taken as a foundational truth)

A self-evident principle accepted as true without proof, forming the foundation of a theory or system.

tenet (a core principle of a doctrine or field)

A central principle or belief held by a discipline, school of thought, or theory.

heuristic (a rough problem-solving shortcut or rule of thumb)

A practical rule of thumb or approximate method used to reach a workable, not necessarily optimal, solution.

caveat (a cautionary qualification attached to a claim)

A warning or qualification limiting how broadly a finding or claim should be interpreted.

to confound (to muddle results via an uncontrolled extraneous factor)

In research design, to distort a result by introducing an extraneous variable that obscures the true relationship.

null hypothesis (the assumption of no effect, tested against the data)

The default statistical assumption that there is no effect or relationship, which a study attempts to reject.

standard deviation (a measure of spread around the average)

A measure of how widely values in a dataset are dispersed around the mean.

variance (the degree of statistical spread in data)

A statistical measure of dispersion equal to the average of the squared deviations from the mean.

regression (statistical modelling of how variables relate)

A statistical technique for estimating the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more predictors.

meta-analysis (a pooled statistical synthesis of multiple studies)

A study that statistically combines the results of many independent studies to draw a more robust conclusion.

longitudinal (tracking the same subjects over time)

Describing research that follows the same subjects over an extended period.

cohort (a defined group of subjects followed in a study)

A group of subjects sharing a defining characteristic who are studied together, often over time.

baseline (the initial reference level for comparison)

A reference measurement taken before an intervention, against which later changes are compared.

placebo (an inactive dummy treatment used as a control)

An inert substance given to a control group so that the genuine effect of a treatment can be isolated.

double-blind (a trial where both subjects and testers are unaware of group assignment)

Describing a trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know who receives the treatment.

protocol (a formal step-by-step experimental procedure)

A detailed, formalised plan specifying exactly how an experiment or procedure is to be carried out.

assay (a test quantifying a substance or biological activity)

A laboratory procedure for measuring the presence, amount, or activity of a substance.

to titrate (to add a reagent gradually to measure concentration, or to fine-tune a dose)

To determine a concentration by adding a measured reagent until a reaction reaches its endpoint; more broadly, to adjust a dose precisely.

centrifuge (a spinning device that separates substances by density)

A machine that spins samples at high speed to separate components by density.

to precipitate (to make a solid separate out of a solution)

In chemistry, to cause a solid to form and settle out of a solution.

specimen (a single sample taken for study or display)

An individual sample of material or an organism taken for examination or display.

substrate (the material an enzyme acts on, or a growth surface)

The substance on which an enzyme acts, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows.

solvent (the dissolving medium in a solution)

A substance, usually liquid, in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution.

aqueous (water-based; dissolved in water)

Relating to or dissolved in water.

valence (an atom's bonding capacity)

The combining capacity of an element, determined by the number of electrons it can lose, gain, or share.

thermodynamics (the physics of heat and energy transfer)

The branch of physics concerned with heat, energy, and their transformations.

catalysis (the speeding up of a reaction by a catalyst)

The acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst.

polymer (a long chain molecule of repeating units)

A large molecule built from many repeating subunits, natural or synthetic.

genotype (an organism's underlying genetic makeup)

The genetic constitution of an organism, as distinct from its observable traits.

allele (a variant form of a gene)

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same position on a chromosome.

heredity (the transmission of traits across generations)

The passing of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

natural selection (survival and reproduction of the fitter variants)

The evolutionary mechanism by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.

adaptation (an evolved feature suited to the environment)

An inherited trait that enhances an organism's fitness in its environment, or the process producing it.

pathogen (a disease-causing microorganism)

A microorganism, such as a bacterium or virus, that causes disease.

antibody (an immune protein that targets a specific antigen)

A protein produced by the immune system to recognise and neutralise specific foreign substances.

antigen (a substance that provokes an immune response)

A foreign molecule that triggers an immune response and to which antibodies bind.

microorganism (a microscopic living thing)

A living thing too small to be seen without a microscope, such as a bacterium, virus, or protozoan.

photosynthesis (plants converting light into chemical energy)

The process by which green plants convert light energy into chemical energy, producing oxygen.

osmosis (water flow across a membrane toward higher solute concentration)

The movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from a dilute to a more concentrated solution.

diffusion (the spreading of particles down a concentration gradient)

The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.

membrane (a thin selective barrier, as around a cell)

A thin pliable layer, especially one enclosing a cell or organelle and regulating what passes through.

neuron (a nerve cell that transmits signals)

A specialised cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system.

synapse (the gap where neurons communicate)

The junction across which a nerve impulse passes from one neuron to another.

stimulus (something that triggers a biological response)

Something that evokes a functional reaction in an organism, tissue, or sensory receptor.

subatomic (smaller than an atom)

Relating to particles smaller than an atom, such as electrons, protons, and quarks.

photon (a particle of light)

A quantum of electromagnetic radiation; the elementary particle of light.

electron (a negatively charged subatomic particle)

A negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus of an atom.

relativity (Einstein's theory of space, time and gravitation)

Einstein's theory describing the interdependence of space, time, motion, and gravitation.

inertia (a body's resistance to changes in motion)

The tendency of a body to resist changes in its state of motion.

amplitude (the height or strength of a wave's oscillation)

The maximum displacement of a wave or oscillation from its equilibrium position.

oscillation (a repetitive back-and-forth variation)

A regular variation or back-and-forth movement about a central value or position.

resonance (amplified vibration at a system's natural frequency)

The amplification of oscillation when a system is driven at its natural frequency.

viscosity (a fluid's thickness or resistance to flowing)

A fluid's resistance to flow.

refraction (the bending of light passing between media)

The bending of a wave, especially light, as it passes from one medium into another.

homeostasis (the body's self-regulation of internal stability)

The maintenance of a stable internal environment by an organism despite external changes.

taxonomy (the classification of living things)

The science of classifying and naming organisms in ordered groups.

physiology (the study of how living bodies function)

The branch of biology dealing with the functions of living organisms and their parts.

cosmology (the study of the universe's origin and structure)

The study of the origin, structure, and evolution of the universe as a whole.

biodiversity (the variety of life in an environment)

The variety of living organisms within a habitat, ecosystem, or the planet as a whole.

stochastic (randomly determined; probabilistic)

Involving or governed by randomness; describable in terms of probability.

inductive (reasoning from particular cases to a general rule)

Describing reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations.

deductive (reasoning from general premises to a certain conclusion)

Describing reasoning that derives specific conclusions necessarily from general premises.

a priori (known by reasoning alone, independent of experience)

Denoting knowledge or reasoning that proceeds from theoretical principle rather than observation.

deterministic (fully determined by prior states, without chance)

Describing a system whose future states are fully fixed by its present state, with no randomness.

nomenclature (the standardised naming system of a field)

A formal system of names and terms used within a scientific discipline.

corollary (a direct consequence or natural follow-on of a result)

A proposition that follows naturally and with little extra proof from one already established.

confounding variable (an extraneous factor that distorts the apparent relationship between the variables of interest)

An extraneous factor that correlates with both the independent and dependent variables, biasing the apparent effect.

statistical significance (a result whose p-value falls below a pre-set threshold, indicating low probability under the null hypothesis)

A result judged improbable under the null hypothesis, conventionally when the p-value falls below a set threshold such as 0.05.

phenotype (an organism's observable traits)

The observable physical and behavioural characteristics of an organism, arising from its genes and environment.

valency (British English; American: valence)

British English word for an atom's combining or bonding capacity.

neurone (British English; American: neuron)

British English spelling of a nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals.